Diversity and Cultural Resource Management in the Philippines

Robert L. Yoder

Part I: Diversity and Cultural Resource Management in the Philippines

The Philippines is located in Southeast Asia, an island republic of more than 7,000 islands. Her land mass is 296,170 square kilometers[1] or approximately 114,351 square miles.[2] This is somewhat larger than the state of Arizona.[3] The population of the Philippines is 97,976,603 (2009 estimate).[4] This amounts to 856.8 persons per square mile.[5] The density of the Philippines varies from its cities such as Manila and its rural areas with the second largest island of Mindanao still having much of its land in forest. It is not a wealthy country. According to the “Fact book” website of the Central Intelligence Agency[6] the unemployment in the figures (2008 estimate) is 7.4%, but this figure must be matched by the figure that 30% of the population is below the poverty line for that country. The public debt of the Philippines is 56.3% of the Gross Domestic Product (2008 estimate).
The Philippines is composed of various cultures and peoples. By religion most profess to be Christian and, of these, most are Roman Catholic.[7] Five percent are Muslim whose population is found mainly in the southern part of the island of Mindanao. There are about eight language groups with a total of eighty-seven dialects. Most in the upper and middle classes can speak English.[8]
Of those in the minority there are a number of Tribal Groups in addition to the Muslim minority who live in the interior hills and mountains, isolated valleys, remote regions, and in the tropical rain forests. Some are quite small in number. A few examples would include the Mangyans of Mindoro Island, the Bataks of Palawan Island, Negritos and Zambals of Central Luzon, the Dumagats of the forest of the Sierra mountains in Luzon, or the Igorots of northern Luzon.[9]
A number of years ago my wife, a Filipina, went on a fact-finding trip to the Philippines arranged jointly by the National Council of Churches (USA) and the National Council of Churches of the Philippines. In her case she visited a minority tribal group that lived in the forests of the Sierra Madre Mountains in Luzon. Transportation took her group as closely as they could to the mountain tribe. From that point on she and her companions had to walk approximately three hours under the heat and humidity of a tropical sky. There were, of course, no lodges as Americans would know it and the food included many of the “delicacies” such as fried ants. Iodine was added to the water in order to prevent bacterial infections. Few tourists would want to undergo this type of travel and there would be a debate as to whether the imposition of the cultural values from the industrialized world would negatively impact the life of such groups.
The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage as a part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization presently has selected five sites considered worthy of world interest as a cultural site or a natural site. These are:[10]
· Baroque Churches of the Philippines Cultural Site
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/677

· Tabatha Reefs Natural Park Natural Site
http://whc.unesco.or/en/list/653

· The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras Natural Site
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/722

· The Historic Town of Vigan Cultural Site
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/502

· The Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River Natural Park Natural Site
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/652

Of these five projects, the most money has been allocated by World Heritage center to the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras due to the fact that it is an endangered natural site.[11] This paper will subsequently discuss in more detail two of these projects: the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras (Part II) and Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (Part III).
The 2009 National Budget of the Philippines totals 1.415 trillion Pesos.[12] As of the writing of this paper[13] the exchange rate of Philippine Pesos to United States Dollars was $1.00 (US) = P 47.50. In US Currency it would be approximately $67,212,500,000. Monies allocated by the government for Cultural Resource Management might be found in several parts of the budget but principally the Natural Museum[14] and in the National Parks Development Committee. The details of these may be found at the end as Addendum A and Addendum B. The total allocated for the Natural Museum is P121,585,000 (Philippines) or $255,968 (US). The total allocated for the National Parks Development Committee is P2,002,364,000 (Philippines) or $421,550 (US).
The amount given to the preservation of museums, historic sites, and park sites is 0.0096339% of the over-all budget.[15] The amount may not be enough to adequately address the preservation of such places particularly noting that the Philippines suffers from Typhoons, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions as well as the decay that comes from the high humidity and heat of the area, it may well be that this is best that the government can give of its budget. While I only gave a peripheral overview of the details of the budget I did note that many of the budget allocations were directed toward schools. In many of the administrative provinces of the Philippines, for instance, the only amounts budgeted were for colleges and universities of each region. Naturally, the provincial governments could draw on other budget allocations for such things as roads from other parts of the overall national budget.
The first part of this paper would advocate that the Philippines has a great diversity of people but that some of these people who are tribal in nature are in very remote areas not easily accessible to tourist development and, furthermore, that such a development, were it practiced, might have more negative impacts upon their life and culture than any positive economic benefits they might receive.
The Philippines must struggle to meet its economic needs although reports I have received in popular media have suggested that the world downturn in the economy has not affected the Philippines as much as it has in other parts of the world. This is partly due to the fact that the Philippines courted outsourcing of work to its country with workers who are paid a faction of a salary and fewer benefits than in North America and Europe. It also has been sustained by monies sent from Overseas Contract Workers who sacrifice from their meager salaries to send home to relatives.[16]
The government struggles to maintain a balance of competing needs upon the national budget and the allocation to historic, cultural, and natural preservation must compete with education, infrastructure, and the like. Sadly the amounts allocated further suffer due to corruption of those that administer the funds. There are also preservation efforts by some of the Philippine elite such as the wealthy Ayala family. However, it is my opinion that the interpretation of history by this funding source is skewed toward the preservation and exultation of the Spanish era.
Part II: Preservation of What and for Whom? Rice Terraces of the Philippines Cordilleras

The population of the Philippines is made up of a number of ethnic groups but among these the Malay are a predominate strain although intermarriage between the Malay and the Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, American, and other groups makes racial profiling impossible today especially in urban areas such as Manila. Anthropologists believe that the Malays came to the Philippines in three waves. The first of these was in the third century B.C.E. Among the ethnic groups now present in the Philippines which are represented in this immigration are the Bontoks, the Igorots, and the Tinguians. They had their own religious patterns, grew rice, tobacco, and vegetables.[17] They also knew about the mining, smelting, and forming of copper instruments which brought about an advance in agricultural cultivation. “It is surmised that they probably brought the knowledge of rice culture and built the first rice terraces in the Philippines.”[18] They had some knowledge of mathematics and “the rice terraces… speak quite highly of their practical engineering skill.”[19]
The terraces are built with restraining walls of mud and stone which are carefully shaped along the natural contours of the mountains and hills. Intricate irrigation systems take water from higher forest lands with an elaborate system of gravity irrigation flow from a higher patch to a lower one.[20]
As part of a global strategy initiative with a regional study on Asian Rice Culture and its Terraced Landscapes, the World Heritage Fund adopted the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras.[21] The projects that are under development are found in the municipalities of Banaue, Mayoyao, Kiangan and Hungduan in the Ifugao province.[22]
According to the World Heritage Center of UNESCO these terraces “are the priceless contribution of Philippine ancestors to humanity. Built 2000 years ago… [they] represent an enduring illustration of an ancient civilization that surpassed various challenges and setbacks posed by modernization.[23]
It is, however, modernization, that is one of the chief obstacles in the intensive labor maintenance of these ancient structures. The Ifugao people have abandoned up to thirty percent of the terraces and neglect and deforestation has taken a great toll on them.[24] In a newspaper article,[25] Cecil Morella described the loss of interest among the Ifugao people. “… migrations, [and] the lure of easy tourist money…imperil the 2,000-year-old structures…” The article quotes farmer, Gabriel Balicdon, “We need to protect our heritage, but young people no longer want to work the farm. If the paddy crumbles they do not know how to repair it.” Another farmer, Simon Illog gave up farming in 1989 to open a tourist inn and says that it is difficult to find farm hands to maintain the terraces. Fifty-seven year old Nestor Buccah noted that it took him three months, using mud and rock to repair a retaining wall of a plot that had been gnawed away by earthworms adding, “My son works in the city as a [jeepney ? tricycle ?][26] driver. He would rather help me here but we need his wages to buy meat.” The article also quotes Marilyn Bartina, an official of the Ifugao Cultural Heritage Office, “People all want a higher quality of life and the amenities that modern times can offer. They send their children to school but the graduates don’t go back to the terraces and farm, and they (the terraces) fall into disrepair.”
Ironically, the tourist “trade” is indirectly destroying the terraces by deforestation above the farms. Locals cut down trees and use roots to carve images of Ifugao gods to sell to tourists.[27]
By tradition the terraces are handed down from generation to generation with the eldest getting most of the property. The other siblings often leave the area and if no other avenue is open to them they attempt to farm elsewhere often burning forests to clear the land. Others migrate to other provinces or go abroad for work.[28]
The terraces have made the site a tourist mecca and the main economic driving force of the area. On average tourists stay for four days and spend an average of P2,550 ($57 US). Some of the residents resent the tourist trade. Electricity reaches only the tourists inns. Older residents go about their lives in traditional ways wearing loincloths, milling rice by hand, weaving cloths with handlooms, and chewing betel nut. Others have readily adapted to the new social situation and rotate toward a cash-based economy which makes some speculate that traditional culture may eventually disappear.
In an editorial in the newspaper the Philippine Inquirer the editor concludes, “In the end, what should be preserved is a lifestyle but with adjustments to the modern age. The terraces cannot be saved by ecotourism alone, which would conserve and preserve the terraces for the dollars of tourists. But ecotourism can only go so far. What’s needed is for the agrarian roots of the terraces to be maintained. And that means preserving its culture and lifestyle, and fostering its fidelity to the earth.”[29]
One of the solutions the national and local governments are considering is to lease abandoned terraces to other farmers. Some Ifugao famers practice tenancy by letting another till the farme for three years without rent but requiring that the owner gets half of the harvest on the fourth year. For the owner’s part, he agrees to share in the expenses of the land during that time. The local term for this practice is “ugat” and some governmental structures are considering adapting this system as a way to continue the practice of traditional rice terrace farming.[30]
In 1994 the World Heritage Fund established a six-year master plan seeking a holistic approach. UNESCO has contributed technical expertise. The plan includes sustainable tourism as a component of the plan.[31]
The World Heritage Fund encourages a cooperative approach between local communities, governmental efforts, non-governmental agencies,[32] and itself. It desires to respect the local practices in regard to their respect for lunar cycles, and other traditions. It hopes to master the complex problem of pest control[33]
Budget restraints in the 2009 Budget of the Philippines cut short a P44 million [$926,000+]] planned development of a tourist village and the purchase of 25 hectares [61.8 acres] toward that end. Tourism Secretary Joseph Ace Durano said, “If we are to continue the effort to promote the rice terraces as a heritage site, we have to operate it as such.” In an ominous note, Ifugao Representative Solomon Chungalao said, “Before the eldest child got everything [of the family inheritance upon death of the family head]. Now the children have gone to school and they want their share of the land.” He noted that now the rice terraces are so subdivided that the smaller partitions have made for the inefficient production of rice.[34]
I would conclude that the effort to save the Rice Terraces is important to the preservation of one of the ancient, pre-western (viz. Spanish and U.S.) cultures. It is both an important cultural entity of the Philippines and to the world at large.[35]
Yet the factors that oppose their continuance are many: natural pests such as earthworms (see footnote 32), and typhoons[36] combine the high human maintenance requirements, and the loss of interest in traditional culture and farming methods by younger generations who, with education, seek life beyond their ancestral homelands. The cost to maintain these rice terraces will be a challenge to organizations who seek to preserve them.
Part III: Ecological Conservation; Sustainable Tourism: Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park

A second site which is designated as a world heritage site by UNESCO is the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park composed of 33,200 hectares[37] or 82,039 acres[38] which is found beyond the island of Palawan. As described by UNESCO[39] the “Tubbataha Reef Marine Park… is a unique example of an atoll reef with a high density of marine species; the North Islet serving as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles. The site is an excellent example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100 [meter] perpendicular wall, extensive lagoons and two choral islands.” According to a travel site,[40] Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park is home to 483 varieties of fish, 396 species of coral (the area has examples of one-half of all the known world coral species), and 44 species of birds. As to sea life the park houses 9 dolphin / whale species and is the nesting site of the Hawksbill and Green Sea Turtles.
Threats reported to the World Heritage Center from 2001 to 2008 may be illustrated by this graph that was prepared in 2009.[41] It shows the number of threat reports to the World Heritage Organization of UNESCO in any given year.
Fishers have been one of the main threats to the site. The monsoon season, however, has mitigated the threat, allowing marine life and the reef some time to regenerate. A report in 1989 indicated that the coral in the outer reefs had decreased by 25%. Legislation was passed by the government in the 1980s to preclude dynamite fishing and other destructive methods.[42] But the threat of destructive measures continues.[43] Normal fishing practices are allowed and the Philippine government acted to help alleviate concerns over the catch of fish by introducing some new ways of fishing which are not threatening to the region but still bring in a good number of fish with less effort than the normal use of net fishing.[44]
Industrial development has largely been precluded as a threat to this area. There are no industries at the site because there is actually little land on which to develop any building. However, recently the Philippine government would not allow exploration for oil from the Burgundy global Exploration Corporation.[45] The government also prevented the establishment of a seaweed farm in one of the areas islets. The government entered a lawsuit against the company and was successful in the courts.[46]
A recent threat to the site has come from the Crown of Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci). This species is a “voracious eater” of the hard coral and also has threatened the catch of local fish. The Philippine Government responded by paying locals 2 pesos (about 4 cents US) for each predator caught. According to the government 300 hectares of the coral reefs were “heavily affected” At its height, some 1,200 starfish were caught in one day with a total of 30,000 caught by February of 2008. Because the number of starfish being caught is decreasing it is assumed that the number of starfish is also decreasing.[47]
Finally tourism is an issue which has both positive and negative impacts. On the positive side tourism provides income to the government for the preservation of the site and to promote conservation efforts.[48] On the other hand if large numbers of tourists came to the site there would doubtless be a detrimental effect to the area over time. One factor which may well control tourists is the remoteness of the site. Using Manila as a base it would take the traveler a trip by airplane (approximately one hour) or boat to lodge at Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island. The reefs are some distance from there. Normally visitors leave after dinner with guests sleeping on board boats. The boats arrive around 6:00 a.m. the next morning. Guests are under strict rules to protect the area.[49] These include the following;
1. Stay a safe distance from marine life as well as corals.
2. Don’t touch any marine animals and avoid wearing gloves (not wearing gloves will mean that the swimmer is liable to cut himself and therefore prevent touching the coral).
3. Don’t chase, grab or block the path of any free-swimming marine animal.
4. Avoid collecting any souvenirs from your dives, even dead corals.
5. Always enter and exit the water in the designated areas.
6. Always check that you are properly weighted and practice your buoyancy control in areas where there is no coral growth.
7. Take care not to disturb the sand because sand can smother and kill living coral.[50]
The World Heritage Center of UNESCO has approved the following actions in support of the Tubbataha Reefs Park:[51]
1. January 1, 1996 Approved $20,000 (US)
2. January 1, 1997 Approved $50,000 (US)
3. November 29, 1997 Approved $30,000 (US) to train a core of individuals related to scientific dimensions of managing the Reef as a natural World Heritage site.
4. October 1, 2007 Approved $18,488 (US) as extended funds.
A newspaper reporter for the Philippine Inquirer wrote, “Considering that 75 percent or more of the coral reefs in the Philippines are in varying states of decline. Tubbataha stands out as one of the best managed and conserved marine sanctuaries in the country, an example worth emulating.”[52] It would seem from the evidence I uncovered that this project has been, on the whole, a successful effort on the part of the national government and other organizations such as those of UNESCO.
Part IV: Memorials and Monuments: The Birthplace of Dr. José Rizal in Calamba, Rizal

This picture[53] was taken at Calamba,[54] Laguna in December of 1903 where the citizens of the town gathered at a temporary booth to remember Dr. José Rizal. It was proper that they should do so because in that era particularly Filipinos honored Rizal. Although no act has passed the Philippine legislature to name a “national hero” the majority of Filipinos give him that designation. Further-more, Rizal was born and raised in the town of Calamba.
They did not, however, meet at his birthplace because it was not public property. The family had earlier been evicted by the Spanish government under the orders of then Governor Valeriano Weyler, later to be named by the American press the “Butcher of Cuba.”[55] The house eventually was sold to a Spaniard by the name of Don Isidro and was destroyed during the Second World War. Following the war the Philippine government bought what remained of the property for 27,000 pesos.[56]
Unfortunately I was surprised to discover that I was unable to uncover much information regarding this landmark although I searched for articles under JSTOR, American History and Life, Historical Abstracts, and Academic Search Premium. The Google search engine also did not provide much useful information. I did discover under the World Cat List of Records that the National Historical Institute of the Philippines did produce two publications both entitled The Calamba Shrine in 1969 and 1975. However, in the United States only Yale University had a copy.[57] I could not avail myself of this valuable resource in time to finish this project. I should also mention that the website of the National Historical Institute strangely has no link or mention of this site which they manage.
There are several Filipino newspaper articles that have recorded a recent controversy regarding a decision of the National Historical Institute of the Philippines to paint the house green.[58]
I am forced to use one source for the rest of my report which, fortunately, is rather full as it relates to the topic. That source is a newspaper article by Jerry E. Esplanada, “Rizal’s Ancestral Home, Shrine Fall[s] Victim to Vandals.”[59]
It should be noted that the restored home is a “best guess” reproduction inasmuch as there are no architectural or engineering specifications available. Architect Juan Nakpil headed up the project of restoration. It had been the dream first of Manuel L. Quezon, President of the Commonwealth in 1936 but any restoration was abandoned with the onslaught of the Second World War. When the war was over, the rebuilding of the now destroyed home was reinstated. The then President Elpidio Quirino named a committee to undertake the restoration. Nakpil had already gathered his data by talking with relatives and with older Calamba residents who remembered details of the house. The site was excavated and a study was made of the remaining building foundations. The funds to rebuild the site came from schoolchildren throughout the archipelago nation and with some funding from the government. The same materials were used as those of the original building. The ground floor is constructed of stone and lime. The second story is made of hardwood. The grounds were landscaped with native trees.[60] On June 19, 1950 the house and grounds were inaugurated. One controversy between some residents of Calamba and the National Historical Institute was with the placement of the staircase. Juan Nakpil insists that the excavated foundation indicates that the staircase was placed in the right location.
The only thing which is truly original is the well which was not destroyed. A description of the house is as follows: “The house features, among others, a wide door through which the horse-drawn carriage of the Mercados[61] had emerged and entered; capiz-shell windows[62] and carved wooden grills; kerosene lamps, which were required of old houses during the old days; a dungeon-like ground floor where now stands a row of glass cases containing [books that belonged to Rizal] and photographs as well as native utensils and other artifacts in use during Rizal’s time.”
Two bedrooms adjoin each side of the living room; one belonged to Rizal’s sisters[63] and on the other side, the bedroom of José and his brother Paciano. The master bedroom is adjacent to the boy’s bedroom where Rizal was born on June 19, 1861. Outside, Rizal’s parents are buried near a narra tree not far from the well.
In addition to the home the National Historical Institute built an adjoining wing which has an audio-visual room and artifacts used by Rizal including articles of clothing. Included is a fragment of Rizal’s coat which was worn at his execution on December 30, 1896.[64]
The past six years indicate that 1.7 million visitors came to the shrine. Records show the following number of visitors:
· 1998 500,000 (This was the centennial year of the Philippine nation)
· 2001 300,000
· 2002 288,688
· 2003 292,807
· 2004 291,104
· 2005 206,680 (The same exact figure is listed for 2006!)
· 2007 59,211 (first quarter only)
This may indicate a decline in interest in the site. The site manager notes that in 2006 attendance was low due to the visitation of two typhoons and other natural calamities that caused an unfortunate destruction of life and property. In addition some peace and order conditions such as threats by terrorists have caused shrines to be closed throughout the nation.
Budgetary problems have also impacted the maintenance of the property. For the year in which the article was written (2007) the National Historical Institute was allocated only P22.5 million (at that time the exchange rate would indicate something like $562,500 [US]). This was to cover some thirty historical shrines and more than 400 markers. To the best of my knowledge, the government does not receive any funding from foreign sources. It is possible[65] that the Knights of Rizal, an international fraternal organization dedicated to the life, writings, and legacy of the national hero, could be implored to donate some money in an emergency.[66]
More troubling, however, is the disrespect shown even by Filipino visitors who have littered the property and sometimes vandalized the shrine with graffiti. One of the groundskeepers lamented, “Minsan, may mga pasaway. Pumapasyal lang yata ditto para mag-date.”[67] I would venture that in an earlier era, Filipinos would have shone the greatest of respect for the birthplace of Dr. Rizal.
National Historical Institute Director, Luvovico Badoy declared, “To desecrate the shrine is to denigrate our identity as Filipinos.”
The Philippine nation has a mission to instill the values of Rizal with each passing generation. The hope is that a positive nationalism will remain through the maintenance of national monuments such as this.
[1] Philippines: A Country Study. (4th edition) Ronald E. Dolan, ed., (Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, 1991), p. xvi.
[2] 296,170 + 2.59.
[3] The area of Arizona is 295,253 square kilometers or 113,998 square miles. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_area .
[4] https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html
[5] This may be compared to a population density of 1,975.4 persons per square mile in the City of Durham, North Carolina: source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina [under “Demographics].] This drops to 769 people per square mile for Durham County as a whole. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham_County,_North_Carolina [under “Demographics].
[6] World-Factbook, CIA, op. cit. The balance of this paragraph takes its information from this site.
[7] 92 percent claim to be Christian. Of these 85 percent are Catholic and 6 percent are Protestant.
[8] “The Filipino People,” Mary John Mananzan, O.S.B. Rice in the Storm. Rebecca C. Asedillo and B. David Williams, ed. (New York: Friendship Press, 1989), p. 7. As to language there has been a shift in an educational emphasis on learning Pilipino based largely on Tagalog from the time of President Diasdado Macapagal (serving as President from December 30, 1961 to December 30, 1965) onward. Many youth in Manila converse in Taglish, a mixture of English and Tagalog.
[9] “Christians, Tribals, Moros,” Ed. Maranan, Rice in the Storm, Ibid. I remember the exploitation of one group, the Tasaday in the rainforests of Mindanao during the Marcos era who were “discovered” and announced to the world as “stone-age cave dwellers. It was later revealed to be a hoax perhaps to draw tourists to the Philippines. The bureaucrat who made this “discovery” was an oligarch with possible interests in the Tasaday region with its forests and mineral resources.
[10] See: World Heritage Information Kit. (Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2008), p. 18. World Heritage Papers 2: Investing in World Heritage: Past Achievements, Future Ambitions: A Guide to International Assistance. (Paris: UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, 2002), p. 41, p. 59. World Heritage Manuals: Managing Tourism at World Heritage Sites: A Practical Manual for World Heritage Site Managers Arthur Pedersen (Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2002)
[11] World Heritage Information Kit, Ibid., p. 18 and World Heritage Papers 2, Ibid, p. 41.
[12] Source: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/National_budget_of_the_philippines_2009
[13] September 5, 2009.
[14] This budget item actually concerns all historical monuments, museums, and the like.
[15] See Addendum C for formula.
[16] Filipinas, January, 2009, pp. 42-44; Filipinas, July, 2009, pp. 34-36.
[17] Eufronio M. Alip. Philippine History: Political, Social, Economic, 8th ed. (Manila, Philippines, Alip & Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 32. Note: The anthropologist Henry Keesing suggests that the Ifugaos, who predominate in this report were pushed by the Spanish in the seventeenth century into their present location where they undertook farming with rice terraces. Keesing, F. M. 1962. The Ethnohistory of Northern Luzon. Stanford University Press.
[18] Theodoro A. Agoncillo A Short History of the Phillippines. A Mentor Book. (New York and Toronto: The New American Library, 1975), p. 17.
[19] Eufronio M. Alip. Philippine History: Political, Social, Economic. Ibid., p. 62.
[20] “Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras” World Heritage Center. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/722
[21] Specifically the Cordilleras mountains. The Cordillera Administrative Region has several provinces that bound it: Benguet, Abra, Kalinga, Apayao, the Mountain Provincre, and Ifugao. Baguio City is the principal municipality in Benguet Province and close to the rice terraces. “Cordillera Central (Luzon), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordillera_Central_(Luzon)
[22] “Investing in World Heritage: Past Achievements, Future Ambitions: A Guide to International Assistance,” World Heritage Papers, 2, Published by UNESWCO World Heritage Centre, p. 41.
[23] “Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras” World Heritage Center. Op cit.
[24] “Investing in World Heritage: Past Achievements, Future Ambitions: a Guide to Internatioinal Assistance,” op cit.
[25]Cecil Morella. “Pests, Migration Threaten 2,000-year old RP [Republic of the Philippines] Rice Terraces,” the Philippine Inquirer, December 3, 2007. http://busines.inquirer.net/money/breakingnews/view/2007/123-104510/Pests%C-migration_threaten_2%2C000-year_old_RP_rice_terraces
[26] The jeepney is a public conveyance made from converted World War II Jeeps. A tricycle is a bicycle or motorized bike with a third-wheeled passenger sidecar and is also a public conveyance.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Editorial. “Saving the Terraces” The Philippine Inquirer. February 14, 2009. http://opinion.inquirer/net/inquireropinion/editorial/view/20090214-189265/Saving-the-terraces
[30] Ibid.
[31] “Investing in World Heritage: Past Achievements, Future Ambitions: A Guide to International Assistance,” Op. cit.
[32] One such non-governmental organization is SAVE (Save the Terraces Movement) which seeks to raise Ifugao traditions and a pride of its culture. A part of this is to save the terraces and traditional farming methods. See: Augusto Villalon. “Pride of Place: Saving the Rice Terracers, Ifugao-style” Philippine Inquirer, October 13, 2008. http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view/20081013/saving_the_Rice_Terraces%2C_Ifugao-style
[33] Among the present pests that contribute to the destruction of the terraces are earthworms See “Editorial: Saving the Terraces” Op. cit. and Cecil Morella, “Pests, Migration threaten 2,000-year old RP Rice terraces. Op. cit.
[34] Norman Bordadora. “Rice Terraces Lose Development Fund.” Philippine Inquirer. September 9, 2008. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirer/headlines/nation/view/20080909-15486/Rice-terraces-lose-development-fund.
[35] Similar rice terraces were once found in mainland China but no longer exist.
[36] In none of my research was this impediment noted. However the region of the Cordilleras mountains is often impacted by the heavy rains and winds of typhoons which must have a significant impact upon the erosion of earthwork dams.
[37] Augusto Villalon. “Pride of Place: Why Tubbataha Reef is a World Heritage Site.” The Philippine Inquirer, September 22, 2008. http://services.inquirer.net/print/print/.php?article_id=20080922-162085
[38] One hector equals 2.47105381 acres.
[39] “Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park: Description,” http://whc.unesco.org/pg_friendly_print.cfm?cid=31&id_site=653&
[40] “Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park in Palawan Philippines” under the site, Travel Asia. http://www.travelasianplaces.com/tubbataha-reefs-natural-park-in-palawan-philippines.html
[41] “Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park: Threats,” http://whc.unesco.org.en/list/653/threats
[42] Augusto Villalon. Op. cit.
[43] In an article by Redempto Anda, “42 nabbed for dynamite fishing at Tubbataha,” Philippine Inquirer, May 10, 2009, illustrates that the danger continues. The Philippine Coast Guard apprehended the fishers but damage was done to he reefs. http://services.inquirer.net/print/print.php?article_id=20090510-204252
[44] Ma. Ceres P. Doyo, “Human Face: Apo Reef now a ‘no-take zone’” The Philippine Inquirer, October 4, 2007. The article details what is locally called “payaw” fishing. Eighteen “payaw” fishing devices are planned with eight completed as of the article. The devices are made from local materials.
[45] “Burgundy to exclude Tubbataha from exploration contract,” Philippine Inquirer, March 14, 2008. http://services.inquirer.net/print/print.php?article_id=3008314-124728
[46] Augusto Villalon. “Pride of Place: Why Tubbataha Reef is a World Heritage Site.” Op. cit. In one article in the Philippine Inquirer, mention was made of Mr. Anton Concepcion, an industrialist and also an avid runner and scuba diver has raised 100,000 Philippine pesos to help preserve the Tabbataha site. See Annie Jambora, Philippine Daily Inquirer. April 27, 2008. http://services.inquirer.net/print/print/php?article_id=20080427-132968
[47] Redempto Anda, “Starfish attack Palawan reefs,” Philippine Inquirer, May 23, 2008. http://services.inquirer.net/printprint.php?article_id=20080523-138246.
[48] “Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park in Palawan Philippines”, op. cit. Most visitors come between the months of March and June when diving conditions are best. The government collects a conservation fee which goes toward “management, maintenance, improvement, law enforcement, educational campaigns and the training of park rangers.”
[49] Ibid.
[50] Ibid. The list is only a slightly amended quotation.
[51] World Heritage Center: Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park: Assistance. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/653/assistance/
[52] Augusto Villalon, “Pride of Place: Why Tubbataha Reef is a World Heritage Site.” Op. cit.
[53] Taken from my collection of Rizal pictures.
[54] Sometimes the town is spelled Calamba in the Spanish manner and sometimes Kalamba in the Tagalog manner.
[55] Leon Ma. Guerrero. The First Filipino: A Biography of José Rizal. (Manila, National Historical Institute, 1961), p.192. The parents of Rizal along with a large number of the citizens in town had gone to court over disputes with the Dominican order over tenancy payments. The citizens claimed, among other things, that the Dominicans actually had no historic claim over much of the land. The trial had concluded with an eviction order by the courts against the citizens who had brought suit against the Dominicans. In late 1891 Weyler sent a detachment of soldiers to the town and forcibly evicted all families against whom the judgment had fallen. Rizal’s parents moved to Manila.
[56] “Rizal Shrine (Calamba, Laguna).” http://ww.vistapinas.com/article/rizal-shrine-calamba
[57] The other libraries are in Australia and Singapore.
[58] One such article by Ambeth Ocampo, “Looking Back: Why Rizal’s House Turned Green” Philippine Inquirer. June 3, 2009, indicates that according to Martin Tinio, formerly of the Intramuros [the old walled city of Manila] Administration indicated that Filipino homes of Spanish era were often painted blue, yellow, red, or green. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the custom of whitewashing buildings became popular because it was believed that the whitewash acted as a disinfectant which might repel plagues.
[59] Philippine Inquirer. June 18, 2007. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20070618-71971/Rizal%92s_ancestral_home%
[60] While not in the article we know that Rizal recalled some of the trees that were in his home in his youthful autobiography, Memoirs of a Student in Manila. See: http://joserizal.info/Biography/memoirs-chapter1.htm
[61] The family name of the national hero is actually Mercado. He switched to the use of one of his middle names, Rizal, when he left the country to study abroad because his older brother, Paciano, feared that the immigration authorities might prevent his travel inasmuch as Paciano was on an “enemies list” of the government. The national hero used the name Rizal throughout his life although he once related in a letter to his friend Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt, that the name continued to seem strange to him.
[62] This style of window, unknown to Americans, was quite common in Filipino homes of an earlier day and may still be found in these older homes. The small “windowpanes” are made from a translucent shell.
[63] Saturnina Narcisa, Olympia, Lucia, Maria, Concepcion, Josefa, Trinidad, and Soledad).
[64] The article does not mention it but Rizal was hastily buried in Paco Cemetery following his execution in an unmarked grave in unconsecrated ground. His family bribed a caretaker to show his burial site which they discreetly marked with a simple gravestone with the letters of his name reversed. When American forces entered the city in the Spanish-American war, the family came to the grave and unearthed his body. Not much survived but, I would assume, a fragment of the coat remained. His remains were later reinterred at the Luneta Park where the principle statue stands as a monument to his life and death which occurred nearby.
[65] I do not know.
[66] I am a member of this organization through a branch in Toronto, Canada.
[67] “These people are hard-headed. They come here to date.”